Comma Clarity: Rules That Raise Your ACT English Score

Introduction to Comma Usage – Understanding the Basics

The Purpose of a Comma in Sentences

A comma is a small punctuation mark, yet it plays a crucial role in sentence structure. Commas help clarify the meaning of sentences by separating elements, preventing misreading, and guiding the reader through complex thoughts. While many people have been taught to insert a comma where they would naturally pause when speaking, this approach can often be misleading. The human voice may pause for dramatic effect or rhythm, not because of grammatical necessity. Therefore, it’s more reliable to follow clearly defined rules for comma usage.

One major function of commas is to organize the structure of a sentence. This part focuses on one of the most fundamental applications of commas: to separate introductory elements from the main clause of a sentence. These introductory elements, whether short or long, should always be followed by a comma to indicate that the main subject and verb are about to appear.

What Is an Introductory Element?

An introductory element appears at the beginning of a sentence and leads into the main idea. It sets the scene or gives background information, acting as a bridge to the independent clause that follows. These elements can take various grammatical forms, including single words, phrases, and clauses.

Using a comma after these introductory parts allows the reader to clearly distinguish the setup from the core message of the sentence. Without this separation, sentences may become difficult to read, especially when the introductory part is long or complex.

### Single-Word Introductions

Even a single word at the start of a sentence can act as an introduction. These words often function as adverbs or transitions, such as:

•  However
•  Indeed
•  Meanwhile
•  Certainly
•  Yes
•  No
•  Well

Each of these, when used to start a sentence, should be followed by a comma.

Examples:

•  However, I’m not sure that’s the right solution.
•  Yes, I can help you move next weekend.
•  Well, let me think about that.

Leaving out the comma in such cases might not drastically change meaning, but it could slow down comprehension or suggest that the introductory word is part of the subject or verb.

Prepositional Phrases at the Beginning of Sentences

A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition (such as in, on, after, before, during, under, etc.) and provides additional information about time, location, or manner. When such phrases appear at the start of a sentence, a comma is typically used afterward, especially when the phrase is more than a few words long.

Examples:

•  After dinner, we went for a walk.
•  In the middle of the storm, the campers took cover in a nearby cave.
•  Under the old bridge, the water flowed slowly and quietly.

Short introductory prepositional phrases (fewer than five words) may sometimes omit the comma, especially if the sentence remains clear without it. However, using the comma is never incorrect and is generally preferred in formal writing.

Compare:

• In 2023, many new technologies emerged.
• By midnight, they had still not arrived.

These examples show how a simple prepositional phrase can guide the reader to the main point more clearly when followed by a comma.

Participial Phrases as Introductions

A participial phrase is a group of words containing a participle (a verb form used as an adjective) and any related words. These phrases often function as modifiers and, when placed at the beginning of a sentence, should be followed by a comma.

Examples:

• Running through the forest, the child laughed joyfully.
• Surprised by the question, she paused before answering.

These introductory phrases describe a condition or action related to the subject that follows. Without the comma, the sentence becomes harder to follow, and the reader may initially misunderstand the subject or verb.

Incorrect:

• Surprised by the question, she paused before answering.

Correct:

• Surprised by the question, she paused before answering.

Dependent Clauses as Introductions

A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb but does not express a complete thought. When used at the beginning of a sentence, it should be followed by a comma.

These clauses typically begin with subordinating conjunctions such as:

• Because
• Although
• While
• If
• When
• Since
• Unless
• Even though

Examples:

• Although it was raining, the parade continued as scheduled.
• When the clock struck midnight, the guests began to leave.
• Because he studied all night, he passed the exam with ease.

The comma separates the introductory dependent clause from the main clause, allowing the reader to process the setup before moving to the main point.

Note: If the dependent clause comes after the independent clause, a comma is generally not needed.

Example:

• The parade continued as scheduled, although it was raining. (No comma needed)

Introductory Infinitive Phrases

An infinitive phrase begins with “to” followed by a verb and may include objects or modifiers. When placed at the start of a sentence, these should be followed by a comma.

Examples:

• To avoid being late, he left an hour early.
• To get the best results, mix the solution thoroughly.

These phrases are introductory and set the purpose or goal before revealing the main clause.

Introductory Absolute Phrases

An absolute phrase is a group of words including a noun and a participle that modifies the entire sentence. These are often used for stylistic emphasis and should be followed by a comma.

Examples:

• Her arms folded across her chest, she listened patiently.
• The sun was setting behind the hills, so we packed up and left the campsite.

These add detail and tone to the sentence, and commas mark the transition to the main clause.

Direct Address as an Introductory Element

When the speaker addresses someone directly at the beginning of a sentence, that person’s name or title is separated by a comma. This usage ensures the person being addressed is identified.

Examples:

• Mr. Jackson, could you sign this permission slip?
• Emma, do you know where the keys are?

Omitting the comma could momentarily confuse the reader, suggesting the name is part of the subject.

Incorrect:

• Emma, do you know where the keys are?

Correct:

• Emma, do you know where the keys are?

Transitional and Conjunctive Phrases

Phrases such as “on the other hand,” “in conclusion,” “as a result,” and “in fact” often begin sentences. These phrases introduce a shift in thought, signal a conclusion, or present additional evidence, and should be followed by a comma.

Examples:

• In fact, she was the one who solved the puzzle.
• As a result, the team qualified for the finals.
• On the other hand, we could postpone the trip.

The comma signals that the transitional phrase is complete and the main idea is coming next.

The Importance of the Introductory Comma

Failing to place a comma after an introductory element can lead to confusion or misinterpretation. The reader might misidentify the subject or struggle to identify where the main clause begins. Correct comma placement improves both the flow and clarity of your writing.

Incorrect:

• While waiting for the train, John read a magazine.

Correct:

• While waiting for the train, John read a magazine.

In the incorrect example, the reader might initially interpret “train John” as a compound noun, which is confusing. The correct use of a comma makes the sentence easier to understand.

Sentence Structures – Using Commas to Clarify Meaning

Compound Sentences and Coordinating Conjunctions

In English, a compound sentence is made by joining two independent clauses—complete sentences that could stand on their own—into one sentence using a coordinating conjunction. These conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

When connecting two independent clauses with one of these coordinating conjunctions, a comma is placed before the conjunction. This comma signals to the reader that two distinct thoughts are being combined into a single sentence.

Examples:

• The sun was setting, and the sky turned orange.
• She didn’t study for the exam, so she didn’t pass.

In each sentence above, there are two complete ideas:

• “The sun was setting” and “the sky turned orange.”
• “She didn’t study for the exam” and “she didn’t pass.”

Each clause has its own subject and verb. When joined by a coordinating conjunction, a comma should precede the conjunction to clearly divide the two ideas.

Avoiding Run-On Sentences and Comma Splices

A run-on sentence occurs when two independent clauses are joined without any punctuation or coordinating word. A comma splice happens when the clauses are joined by a comma alone without a coordinating conjunction.

Incorrect (comma splice):

• He loves to swim, he goes to the pool every day.

Incorrect (run-on):

• He loves to swim he goes to the pool every day.

Correct:

• He loves to swim, and he goes to the pool every day.

You may also correct these errors with a semicolon or by separating them into two sentences:

• He loves to swim; he goes to the pool every day.
• He loves to swim. He goes to the pool every day.

Compound Subjects and Compound Verbs – No Comma Needed

Not every sentence that includes and, but, or another coordinating word requires a comma. When the sentence contains a compound subject, compound verb, or compound object, no comma is needed.

Compound subject:

• Mary and James are coming to the picnic. (No comma)

Compound verb:

• He mowed the lawn and watered the garden. (No comma)

Compound object:

• We bought apples, oranges and bananas. (Comma between items, but not before “and” unless using Oxford comma – covered in Part 4)

When a coordinating conjunction joins words or phrases that are not complete clauses, do not use a comma.

Incorrect:

• She danced, and sang. (These are two verbs sharing the same subject. No comma needed.)

Correct:

• She danced and sang.

When to Use a Comma Before a Coordinating Conjunction

Always use a comma before a coordinating conjunction when it connects two independent clauses—each with its own subject and verb.

Examples:

• He wanted to go to the concert, but he didn’t have a ticket.
• The team played well, and they won the championship.

Even if the second clause is short, the comma is still appropriate.

Example:

• I tried, but failed.

However, in informal writing, a short second clause may omit the comma, especially if the meaning is clear. Still, including the comma is safer and more acceptable in academic or professional writing.

Avoiding Misplaced Commas Before Conjunctions

Writers sometimes place commas before coordinating conjunctions even when only a single clause or phrase is being joined. This is incorrect.

Incorrect:

• She likes hiking, and biking. (No comma needed)

Correct:

• She likes hiking and biking.

Commas before “and,” “but,” or other conjunctions are only required when two complete clauses are being connected.

Using More Than Two Independent Clauses

Sometimes a sentence may contain more than two independent clauses. In these cases, commas are used between each clause, and the final one is preceded by a comma and a coordinating conjunction.

Example:

• We visited the museum, we had lunch at a local café, and we stopped by the park before heading home.

Each clause is a full sentence:

• We visited the museum.
• We had lunch at a local café.
• We stopped by the park before heading home.

In this structure, commas keep each idea distinct, and the coordinating conjunction “and” marks the final clause.

Subordinating Conjunctions and Comma Placement

Not all conjunctions join two equal ideas. Subordinating conjunctions such as because, although, since, while, when, if, unless introduce dependent clauses, which do not express a complete thought on their own.

When a sentence begins with a dependent clause introduced by a subordinating conjunction, a comma is placed after the clause.

Examples:

• Because it was raining, we canceled the game.
• Although she was nervous, she spoke confidently.

But when the dependent clause follows the independent clause, no comma is needed:

• We canceled the game because it was raining.
• She spoke confidently although she was nervous.

This structure helps to distinguish coordinating from subordinating conjunctions and explains why the comma is sometimes placed and sometimes omitted.

Using Correlative Conjunctions and Commas

Correlative conjunctions come in pairs such as:

• Either…or
• Neither…nor
• Not only…but also
• Both…and

Generally, correlative conjunctions do not require a comma unless they are used to separate two independent clauses.

Example without comma:

• Either you can come now or you can stay home. (No comma needed because this is one sentence)

Example with comma:

• Not only was he late, but he also forgot the meeting entirely. (Comma separates two full clauses)

In this case, “was he late” and “he also forgot” are independent ideas and require separation for clarity.

Ambiguous Sentence Structures Without Commas

A missing comma can change the meaning of a sentence or lead to confusion. Look at this example:

Incorrect:

• After eating the kids went to bed.

Without a comma, the sentence could initially be misread as “After eating the kids,” which is clearly not intended.

Correct:

• After eating, the kids went to bed.

The comma after the introductory phrase “After eating” clarifies that the kids were the ones who ate and then went to bed.

Another example:

• While cooking the dog barked loudly.

This might suggest that the dog was cooking. A comma clears that up:

• While cooking, the dog barked loudly.

If the person was cooking and the dog barked, then it should be revised to something like:

• While I was cooking, the dog barked loudly.

This demonstrates how comma placement helps clarify the relationship between sentence parts and prevents ambiguity.

Interruptions – Using Commas to Set Off Extra Information

What Are Interruptions in Sentences?

Interruptions are words, phrases, or clauses inserted into the middle of a sentence that are not essential to its grammatical structure. These elements may add emphasis, clarification, or commentary but are not required for the sentence to make sense. When these interruptions occur, they should be set off with commas to show that they are separate from the core meaning.

This rule applies when the added material could be removed without affecting the fundamental meaning of the sentence. In other words, the sentence would still be grammatically correct and clear even if the interrupting element were deleted.

Examples:

• The cake, as you might expect, was completely gone by the end of the party.
• My brother, who lives in Seattle, is visiting next month.

In each example, the interrupting element is enclosed with commas to show it’s extra information, not vital to the sentence’s structure.

Nonessential vs. Essential Information

To know when to use commas around interrupting material, you must distinguish between nonessential and essential information.

Nonessential information is not critical to the identity or meaning of the noun it describes. If removed, the sentence remains complete and clear. This kind of information should be set off with commas.

Example:

• My car, a 2012 Honda Civic, has over 200,000 miles.

The phrase “a 2012 Honda Civic” gives more information but does not change the identity of the subject. The sentence still works without it:

• My car has over 200,000 miles.

Essential information, however, defines or restricts the meaning of the noun it follows. It is crucial to understanding the sentence, so it should not be set off by commas.

Example:

• Students who fail the final exam will not pass the course.

The clause “who fail the final exam” is essential because it tells us which students will not pass. Removing it would alter the sentence’s meaning.

Compare with:

• My students, who failed the final exam, were given a second chance.

In this version, all of the students failed, and the clause is extra information. Commas are required.

Appositives and Commas

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames or explains another noun. If the appositive is nonessential, it should be set off by commas.

Example:

• My friend, a talented painter, has an art show this weekend.

Here, “a talented painter” renames “my friend” but is not essential to the meaning of the sentence. The reader still understands who is being discussed even without the appositive.

If the appositive is essential—meaning it helps identify which person or thing you are talking about—no commas are used.

Example:

• The artist Banksy is known for anonymous street art.

In this case, “Banksy” identifies which artist, so it is essential information and does not require commas.

Parenthetical Expressions

Parenthetical expressions interrupt the main thought of the sentence and provide additional comment, emphasis, or transition. These expressions are often placed between the subject and the verb or between two parts of a sentence. They are usually surrounded by commas.

Common parenthetical expressions include:

• as you know
• in my opinion
• to be honest
• believe it or not
• of course
• in fact
• on the other hand

Examples:

• The meeting, as you know, has been rescheduled.
• This solution, in my opinion, is the best option.

These expressions provide tone, commentary, or emphasis but can be removed without affecting the basic message of the sentence.

Interruptions with Reflexive Pronouns

Sometimes writers use reflexive pronouns like “myself,” “himself,” “herself,” etc., for emphasis. When used this way and placed directly after the noun they refer to, they are considered interruptive and should be enclosed in commas.

Examples:

• The director, herself, approved the final script.
• The coach, himself, apologized for the loss.

These reflexive pronouns are not required but serve to emphasize that the person named performed the action directly or personally. Removing them would not change the core structure of the sentence.

Without the commas, the sentence might imply the reflexive pronoun is essential to the sentence’s grammar, which it is not in this context.

Incorrect:

• The director herself approved the final script. (Grammatically acceptable, but it reads more as if “herself” is essential to the subject.)

Correct:

• The director, herself, approved the final script. (Adds emphasis and is clearly interruptive.)

Interrupting Clauses That Add Information

Sometimes, a nonrestrictive (nonessential) clause is used to describe a noun. These types of clauses usually begin with a relative pronoun like “which” or “who” and should be separated by commas.

Examples:

• The park, which was recently renovated, is now open to the public.
• My uncle, who is a pilot, lives in Arizona.

The information in these clauses adds more detail but does not change which park or uncle is being referenced. Therefore, it is interruptive and must be enclosed with commas.

However, if the clause identifies which park or which uncle specifically, then it is restrictive and should not have commas.

Example:

• The man who called earlier is waiting outside.

In this sentence, “who called earlier” is essential to understanding who “the man” is. No commas are used because the clause cannot be removed without changing the sentence’s meaning.

Interruptions with Dates, Locations, and Names

Commas are also used to separate interruptive elements in dates, geographical names, and titles.

Examples:

• On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence was signed.
• She moved to Austin, Texas, last year.
• Jason Miller, Ph.D., will speak at the conference.

In each case, the middle element (the year, the state, or the title) is interruptive and is placed between commas. Even when the sentence continues beyond the second part of the phrase, the comma is retained after the second element.

Incorrect:

• She moved to Austin, Texas last year.

Correct:

• She moved to Austin, Texas, last year.

Multiple Interruptions in a Sentence

Sometimes a sentence contains more than one interruption. In such cases, each element should be correctly punctuated to avoid confusion.

Example:

• My sister, who recently got married, and her husband, a professional chef, are hosting Thanksgiving this year.

In this sentence:

• “who recently got married” is a nonessential clause describing “my sister”
• “a professional chef” is a nonessential appositive describing “her husband”

Both are interruptive, and commas mark their presence in the sentence.

Removing the Interruption for Clarity

One way to check whether a phrase is interruptive and needs commas is to temporarily remove it from the sentence and see if the sentence still makes sense.

Original:

• The athlete, despite a recent injury, competed in the finals.

Without the interruption:

• The athlete competed in the finals.

The sentence still makes sense, so the phrase “despite a recent injury” is interruptive and correctly set off with commas.

Summary of Key Points for Interruptions

• Use commas to set off nonessential words, phrases, or clauses that interrupt the flow of a sentence.
• Do not use commas around essential information that defines or limits the noun it describes.
• Reflexive pronouns used for emphasis after a noun should be enclosed with commas.
• Appositives that rename a noun and are not essential should be separated by commas.
• Parenthetical expressions like “in fact” or “of course” should be enclosed with commas when interrupting a sentence.
• Nonrestrictive relative clauses (beginning with “which” or “who”) should be enclosed in commas if they are not essential.
• Use commas in dates, place names, and professional titles to mark off additional information.

Lists – Using Commas to Separate Items Clearly

The Role of Commas in Lists

One of the most common and straightforward uses of commas is to separate elements in a series or list. Lists typically involve three or more words, phrases, or clauses of the same grammatical type. Commas serve as visual separators that help readers distinguish each individual item.

Example:

• I packed my bag with a toothbrush, a comb, a towel, and sunscreen.

In this sentence, each item is part of a list of nouns. Without commas, the sentence could become unclear or misread, especially when items are long or complex.

The Oxford Comma (Serial Comma)

The Oxford comma, also known as the serial comma, is the comma that appears before the coordinating conjunction (usually “and” or “or”) in a list of three or more items.

Example with Oxford comma:

• She brought notebooks, pencils, and a calculator.

Without Oxford comma:

• She brought notebooks, pencils and a calculator.

While both versions are grammatically acceptable in many contexts, the Oxford comma often helps eliminate ambiguity and misinterpretation.

Example of ambiguity without the Oxford comma:

• I’d like to thank my parents, Oprah and God.

This suggests that the writer’s parents are Oprah and God. Adding the Oxford comma avoids the confusion:

• I’d like to thank my parents, Oprah, and God.

In formal writing, especially academic or standardized testing contexts, the Oxford comma is generally preferred for clarity.

Lists of Nouns

In a basic list of nouns, commas are placed between each item, and the final comma (Oxford comma) comes before the conjunction.

Example:

• The store sells apples, bananas, oranges, and grapes.

This format ensures that each item is treated as a distinct element.

Lists of Verbs

When listing multiple verbs (actions), commas are used the same way.

Example:

• Every morning, he stretches, showers, eats breakfast, and checks his email.

Each verb is part of the same subject’s action, and commas separate them for clarity.

Lists of Adjectives

When listing coordinate adjectives—adjectives that describe the same noun equally—commas are used between them.

Example:

• It was a long, cold, miserable night.

A test for coordinate adjectives is whether the word “and” could be inserted between them without changing the meaning. If so, they require commas.

Test:

• It was a long and cold and miserable night. (This works.)

But when the adjectives are cumulative—where each builds on the next—commas are not used.

Example:

• She wore a bright red dress.

Here, “bright” modifies “red,” not “dress” directly, so no comma is used.

Lists of Phrases

A list can also consist of entire phrases, not just single words. The commas function the same way.

Example:

• We went to the park in the morning, took a long walk along the river, and watched the sunset from the hilltop.

Each phrase shares the same grammatical structure and represents a separate part of the list.

Lists of Clauses

Sometimes, a sentence contains multiple independent or dependent clauses as items in a list. Commas are used to separate each clause clearly.

Example:

• He said he would finish his work, that he would call when he was done, and that he would arrive by dinner.

In this case, each “that” clause is part of the list. Omitting commas could confuse the reader or cause the ideas to blur together.

If the listed clauses are especially long or already contain commas, semicolons may be used instead to avoid confusion. That topic is beyond basic comma rules, but it’s useful to note.

Lists with Prepositional Phrases

While lists commonly include nouns or verbs, they can also involve prepositional phrases. However, a distinction must be made between listing separate locations and using multiple prepositional phrases to describe one thing.

Example of a list:

• The cat jumped on the table, under the chair, and behind the curtains.

Here, each prepositional phrase describes a different location, so commas are appropriate.

Compare:

• The cat climbed to the uppermost branch on my neighbor’s tree in his backyard.

In this sentence, each prepositional phrase builds upon the previous one to describe a single location, not multiple. So, no commas are used because it’s not a list.

“On my neighbor’s tree” and “in his backyard” modify “branch,” so separating them with commas would break the meaning.

Exceptions and Clarity-Based Decisions

There are cases where a list is technically correct without a comma, but a writer might choose to add one for clarity. Similarly, sometimes extra commas can interfere with sentence flow. The goal is always clarity.

Unclear:

• For breakfast I had eggs, toast and jam and orange juice.

This could suggest “jam and orange juice” is one item.

Clearer with Oxford comma:

• For breakfast I had eggs, toast and jam, and orange juice.

Now it is evident that “toast and jam” is one item and “orange juice” is another.

Lists in Instructions or Commands

When giving instructions or issuing a series of commands, commas help organize the steps or tasks.

Example:

• Take out the trash, wash the dishes, feed the cat, and turn off the lights before you leave.

Each command stands on its own and is separated for clarity and rhythm.

Lists Within Sentences That Already Have Commas

When items in a list contain internal commas, separating them with standard commas may cause confusion. In such cases, semicolons are used instead to separate the list items. While this falls into more advanced punctuation rules, it is worth mentioning briefly.

Example:

• On our trip we visited Paris, France; Rome, Italy; and Madrid, Spain.

Without semicolons, the cities and countries might appear jumbled.

Summary of Comma Use in Lists

• Use commas to separate three or more items in a list, whether they are nouns, verbs, phrases, or clauses.
• The Oxford comma (the one before the final “and” or “or”) is recommended for clarity, especially in formal writing.
• Do not use commas when items in a list are closely linked or cumulative (such as in certain adjective or prepositional phrase combinations).
• When list items already contain commas, use semicolons instead to prevent confusion.

Understanding how and why to use commas is essential for clear and effective writing. While commas may seem small, their role is significant in shaping how readers interpret your sentences. Here is a concise summary of the four key situations where commas are necessary:

Introductions

Use a comma after introductory words, phrases, or clauses to separate them from the main clause. This helps readers quickly identify the core subject and verb.

Example:

• After dinner, we watched a movie.

Structures

Place a comma before a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) that connects two independent clauses. Do not use a comma for compound subjects, verbs, or objects.

Example:

• I wanted to stay, but I had to leave.

Interruptions

Set off nonessential information in the middle of a sentence with commas. This includes parenthetical phrases, appositives, and nonrestrictive clauses.

Example:

• My brother, who lives in Texas, is visiting this weekend.

Lists

Use commas to separate items in a list of three or more, and include the Oxford comma before the final item for clarity.

Example:

• I bought apples, oranges, and bananas.

By mastering these four foundational uses of the comma, you will significantly enhance your writing’s clarity, precision, and overall effectiveness. Whether drafting essays, composing emails, or editing reports, a solid understanding of comma rules will serve you well in nearly every writing task.

Let me know if you’d like this entire series as a downloadable document or if you’d like help with comma exercises or quizzes to reinforce these rules.

Final Thoughts 

Commas are often underestimated in their importance, yet they can change the meaning, tone, and clarity of your writing in subtle but powerful ways. Learning how to use them properly is not just a matter of following rules—it’s about enhancing communication, reducing ambiguity, and demonstrating control over your language.

Many writers, both new and experienced, struggle with comma placement because English allows for nuance, flexibility, and even exceptions. That’s why it’s essential to understand not just the rules, but also why those rules exist. Commas help your reader know when to pause, what information is essential or additional, and how sentence parts relate to each other.

Let’s recap a few key insights:

• Commas after introductions help readers ease into the sentence and prevent misreadings.
• Commas in sentence structures clearly mark the boundaries between independent thoughts and prevent run-on sentences.
• Interruptive commas create space for extra information, emphasis, or clarification without changing the main idea.
• Commas in lists organize information into digestible parts and prevent confusing combinations of ideas or objects.

You don’t need to memorize every obscure comma rule to write well. Instead, focus on internalizing these four core applications. With consistent practice and thoughtful editing, comma use becomes intuitive and reliable.

Here’s one final piece of advice: when in doubt, read your sentence aloud. Not to determine where you pause, but to test whether your sentence is clear, rhythmic, and unambiguous. Then apply what you’ve learned about introductions, structures, interruptions, and lists to fine-tune your punctuation.

Effective comma usage reflects thoughtful writing. It shows attention to detail, respect for your reader, and confidence in your message. Master these basics, and you’ll be better equipped to write with clarity and control—one comma at a time.